An article (the, a, an , some, any) generally proceeds a noun.

'no article'
No article is normally needed when we use uncountable and plural nouns to talk about things generally:
A: What are your hobbies?
B: I like listening to music, playing tennis and collecting stamps.

'the'
We use the when it is clear which thing or person we are talking about:
We saw a tiger and an elephant at the zoo, but the tiger was my favourite. (the one I mentioned a second ago)

'a/an'
We use a or an when we don’t specify which things or people we are talking about:
Should I use a pencil (not a particular one) or a pen (not a particular one) to fill in this form?

'some, any or no article'
Some and any can be used with uncountable or plural nouns when we do not know (or say) how many /much:
I can’t understand why my bank balance is so low. I’m sure I paid some money into the account last week. (I can’t remember how much)

It sometimes makes no difference if we use some or any or no article:
I’ve bought (some) tomatoes (some) apples and (some) cream but I couldn't find (any) peaches.

However, because some and any usually suggest uncertain quantities, it would sound strange to say the following:
She’s really beautiful. She’s got some long blond hair (=I’m not sure how much), a lovely smile and some beautiful teeth. (=I’m not sure how many)




Conjuctions (because, as, since, though, although, even though) are used when providing reason in a sentence or clause.

'because', 'as' and 'since'

Because, as and since are used to answer the question: ‘Why?’. They join two clauses in the same sentence:
Joe resigned because he wanted to spend more time with his family.

Because, as and since show the relationship between the ideas in two clauses:
A: Why did you resign from such a well-paid job, Joe?
B: Because I wanted to spend more time with my family.

Because is more common than as and since when the ‘reason’ is the most important thing. The because-clause usually comes after the main clause:
I went to Cyprus for a holiday last October because I knew it would be warm and sunny every day I was there.

As and since are used when the reason is already well-known and/or less important. The as or since-clause often comes at the beginning of the sentence and is separated from the main clause by a comma:
As my family had finished dinner when I got home, I went to this really good burger bar.
( I’m telling you about the burger bar. It’s not so important ‘why’ I went there).
Since it’s your birthday, I’ll make you breakfast in bed (I’m going to make you breakfast.
(I know, and you know, it’s your birthday)
Note! In conversation, so is often used instead of since and as. The so-clause comes after the main clause.
My family had finished dinner when I got home, so I went to this really good burger bar.

'though', 'although' and 'even though'

Though, although and even though are used to show a contrast between two clauses:
Our new neighbours are quite nice (this is good) though their two dogs bark all day long. (this isn’t good)

We can use though or although with no difference in meaning. But, some differences are:

Though is more common than although in conversation or writing.
Though (but not although) can come at the end of a sentence:
My new bike is really fast. I don’t like the colour, though.
Though (but not although) can be used as an adverb:
I’m not good at maths but I can help you with your geography, though, if you want.

The meaning of though is similar to however, but though is much more common than however in conversation.

Even though can be used to make the contrast between two clauses stronger:
Dad got back from work really late, even though he had promised to take mum to the cinema.

We use prepositions (in, on, at, to, into, from, out of) when talking about position, movement placeor time

in, on, at - place
in, on, at- time
to, into, from, out of - movement

'in', 'on', 'at' - place
In is used to talk about position inside larger areas:
Your new shirt is in the wardrobe.

On is used to talk about something’s position on a line or flat surface:
It’s on the top shelf in the wardrobe.

At is used to talk about a ‘point’ rather than a space, and events where people gather:
Write your phone number at the top of the page.
I met him at the Spice Girls concert.

'in', 'on', 'at' - time
At is used to specify a point in time:
I’ll meet you outside the cinema at 7.15.

In is used to talk about a longer period of time (the morning, the summer, 1972 etc):
During the holiday, I usually read in the morning and go to the beach in the afternoon.

On is used to refer to particular days and dates:
It’s Michael’s birthday on Saturday.

In is used to say how much time will pass before something happens, and to talk about how long something takes:
Hurry up, we’ve got Aerobics class in 20 minutes.
I managed to get to Level 3 of Tomb Raider in about half an hour.
With certain expressions with determiners (this, that, some, all, every) and before next and last, there is no preposition.
How are you feeling this morning? You weren't very well last week, were you?

'to', 'into', 'from', 'out of' - movement
How far is it from the guesthouse to the beach?
If you climb into that hole you’ll never get out of it.

Sentences can be divided into parts called clauses. A relative clause is a part of a sentence that describes the person or thing we are talking about and is connected to other clauses in the sentence via a ‘relative pronoun’, who, which or that. Relative pronouns replace the subject or object of the verb:
Where is the new boy? He was in class yesterday.
Where is the new boy that was in class yesterday?

Can I borrow the CD? You bought the CD.
Can I borrow the CD that you bought?

Identifying relative clauses
The girl that I sit next to in class, gave me her phone number.
that I sit next to in class (the relative clause) identifies ‘which’ girl (there could be many girls in the class).

Non-identifying relative clauses
This is my friend, Thomas, who came on holiday with me last year.
who came on holiday with me last year does not identify ‘which’ friend (we know ‘which’ friend - the friend is Thomas).
Note! In written English, non-identifying relative clauses are separated by commas, and in speech, by pauses.

Keeping who, which and that
You cannot leave out who, which, that when:

It is the subject of the verb in the relative clause
Where is the new boy that was in class yesterday?
It is part of a non-identifying relative clause
The trees that at one time lined this road have all been cut down.

Leaving out who, which and that
You can leave out who, which, that when:

it replaces the object of the verb in the relative clause
Can I borrow the CD (that) you bought?
Note! In identifying relative clauses, where which thing or person talked about is clear without the relative clause, it is very common in spoken English to leave out who, which, that.

There are three types of conditionals, first, second and third.

First conditional
This refers to a grammar structure used to talk about the ‘likely’ result of something happening or not happening. The grammar structure is:
if-clause: 'if' + present tense (eats)
main clause: will or won't
If he takes these antibiotics, he’ll get better quickly. If he doesn’t, he won’t.
Note! Certain other modal verbs (for example, might, but not would), can be used in the main clause.

Second conditional
This refers to a grammar structure used to talk about an ‘unreal’ or ‘unlikely’ situation. The grammar structure is:
If-clause: 'if' + past tense (ate)
Main clause: 'would' or 'wouldn't'
If my shares went up 500% I’d sell them instantly. (but it’s unlikely that they will go up 500%)
Note! Could and might can also be used in the main clause.

Third conditional
This refers to a grammar structure used to imagine the impossible. It is impossible because something happened in the past and can’t be changed. The grammar structure is:
If-clause: 'if' + past perfect (had eaten)
Main clause: would have + past participle (eaten)
You would have passed your exam if you had studied harder. (but you didn’t study hard and you didn't pass your exam)
Note! Could have and might have can also be used in the main clause.

'much and many'
Much is used with uncountable nouns and many is used with plural nouns. They are used mainly in questions and negative sentences:
In my Spanish exam, I didn’t have much time left for the third question.
I don’t have very many DVD discs.

'a lot of' (lots of, plenty of and loads of)
In conversation, a lot of, lots of, plenty of and loads of are more common with uncountable and plural nouns used in positive sentences:
There is a lot of pollution in this city, isn’t there?
There are loads of tourists in town today. (informal spoken English)
Note! In a more formal English style, much and many are preferred to a lot of of, lots, of, plenty of, loads of.

'much' and 'a lot'
Much and a lot can be used as adverbs (used to say more about the verb) after certain verbs:
I still read a lot but I don’t write very much these days.

'little' and 'a little', 'few' and 'a few'
We use few and a few with plural nouns, and little and a little with uncountable nouns. Little and few carry negative ideas. A little and a few carry much more positive ideas and are similar in meaning to some:
He showed little interest in socialising (he wasn’t very sociable) and few people came to his twenty-first birthday party. (some people came, but not enough to make a ‘good’ party)
He had a little money in the bank (not a lot of money but enough to travel) and a few friends in the travel business and was able to go on holiday every year. (not many friends but enough to give him discounts on flights etc)

What are the differences in use between must have, can’t have, should have and needn’t have?

We use the modal verbs(must have, can't have, should have, needn't have) in the following situations;

'must have'
When we use must have and the past participle (must have phoned), we are making a deduction about something that has happened. We are saying, ‘I feel sure that this is the case’:
If your keys aren’t in your pocket, you must have left them in the house.

'can't have'
We use can’t have and the past participle (can't have phoned) when we are making a deduction about something that didn’t happen in the past. That is, you believe, based on present evidence, that something didn’t happen (or hasn’t happened):
He’s not looking. He can’t have heard you. Shout again!

'should have'
Should have and the past participle (should have phoned) expresses the idea that something was desirable or needed, but did not take place:
I should have phoned my mum last night, but I forgot. (I needed to phone my Mum but I didn't phone her)

Shouldn’t have and the past participle (shouldn't have phoned) expresses the idea that something did take place but that it wasn’t desirable or needed:
You shouldn’t have eaten so much chocolate, you’ll be sick. (you ate a lot of chocolate and it wasn't a good idea)

'needn't have'
Needn’t have and the past participle (needn't have phoned) is opposite in meaning to should have. It indicates that something was done, but that it was not necessary. That is, the person who did something thought it was necessary:
A: You needn’t have cooked a meal this evening. I had lunch at The Chinese Dragon with Tom.
B: Well, why didn’t you phone and let me know?

We usereported speech when describing what someone else has said.

W ord Changes
When reporting someone else’s speech, the time, the place and the speakers are often different, so tenses or modals (past/present tenses, will, can etc), words connected with time and place (today, here etc), and pronouns (I, you, he etc) often change:
DIRECT: "I’ll do my homework, here, at the library, tonight." (said on Monday 5th)
REPORTED: She said she would do her homework, there, at the library, last night. (reported on Tuesday 6th)

Verbs used in the original speech generally become more ‘past’ (i.e. they often go back a tense) but some of them stay the same:

present simple > past simple
present progressive > past progressive
past simple > past perfect (or remains as past simple)
present perfect > past perfect
past progressive > past perfect progressive (or remains as past progressive)
past perfect remains as past perfect
can/may/shall/will > could/might/should/would
would, could, should, ought to and might remain the same
must > had to (or remains as must)

If the speech that we report talks about things that you think are still true then the tense doesn’t need to change:
DIRECT: "Sally has broken her leg."
REPORTED: He said Sally has broken her leg.

When we report ‘requests’, ‘offers’, ‘advice’, ‘orders’, and ‘suggestions’ we often use a to-infinitive clause:
DIRECT: "Can you pick me up from the station tonight?"
REPORTED: I asked him to pick me up from the station.

Questions in Reported Speech
The subject comes before the verb. The tense often changes (see above). Note also that question marks are not used in reported questions:
DIRECT: "What’s the matter?"
REPORTED: She asked me what the matter was.

If the question is a ‘yes/no’ question, we use if or whether to report the speech. The auxiliary verb do is not used:
DIRECT: "Do you like Oasis?"
REPORTED: He asked me if I liked Oasis.

Say and Tell
In reported speech, said followed by that is one of the most common constructions. We cannot say told that. If we want to use told, we have to mention the ‘hearer’ by using an object (him, her, us, Bob etc):
DIRECT: "I love you but I can’t marry you!"
REPORTED: He told me (that) he loved me but couldn’t marry me.
Note! That is often omitted, especially in speech.

Other Reporting Verbs
We can use announce, answer, reply, promise, claim, warn etc instead of the more common say, tell and ask:
DIRECT: "I’ll call you tomorrow."
REPORTED: He promised he would call me today.

 

 

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